Neolithic Echoes of Coastal Spain

From the dim mouths of coastal caves to windswept plains, the people grouped as Spain_MLN lived during a time of profound change between c. 4700 and 2500 BCE. Archaeological data indicates sedentary farming villages, durable pottery traditions, and ritual use of caves and rock shelters at sites such as Cova de Els Trocs (Basque Country), Cova de la Guineu (Barcelona), and Campo de Hockey (Cádiz, San Fernando). Radiocarbon-dated materials and stratified deposits show continuity of Neolithic agricultural lifeways alongside persistent use of older hunter‑gatherer places.

Material culture in many localities suggests interaction across different ecological zones: coastal economies exploited maritime resources at Cádiz, while inland cave sites preserved ritual deposits and burials. The distribution of early farmer-associated pottery parallels the spread of agricultural practices from the Mediterranean corridor into interior Iberia. Archaeological evidence points to a mosaic process — local hunter‑gatherer groups incorporated elements of farming economy, producing hybrid material traditions rather than a single sweeping replacement.

Limited evidence for large, rapid migrations in this period contrasts with later Bronze Age movements; instead, the emergence of Spain_MLN appears as a regional blending of incoming Neolithic practices with established Mesolithic lifeways.

Daily life for Spain_MLN communities unfolded in an interplay of cultivated fields, herds, and the sea. Archaeobotanical and faunal remains from stratified contexts indicate cultivation of cereals and pulse crops, and herding of sheep, goats, and cattle. Coastal sites such as Campo de Hockey preserve shells, fish bones, and fish‑processing debris, signaling regular exploitation of marine resources alongside farming.

Habitations ranged from small open settlements to cave occupations used as living spaces or mortuary places; cave burials and ossuary practices at sites like La Coveta Emparetà and Cova de la Guineu reveal how ritual and ancestry were physically embodied. Pottery styles show regional varieties, often decorated and used for cooking and storage — objects that tell stories of domestic routines and identity.

Social organization likely remained community‑oriented and fluid: archaeological traces suggest kin groups managing land, seasonal resource collection, and localized exchange of goods such as polished stone axes or marine shell ornaments. While monumental megalithism becomes more visible later in Iberia, the seeds of long‑distance connection are present in traded items and shared ceramic motifs.

The Spain_MLN assemblage of 50 individuals provides a meaningful window into Middle–Late Neolithic Iberia. Y‑chromosome haplogroup I is the largest male lineage in this dataset (20/50, ~40%), a pattern consistent with continued contribution from western hunter‑gatherer (WHG) paternal lines in parts of Europe. Farmer-associated paternal lineages such as G are present at lower frequency (4/50), while haplogroups H, F and basal CT occur rarely; their low counts (H:4, F:1, CT:1) warrant caution and further sampling before firm conclusions.

Mitochondrial DNA reflects a mosaic of maternal ancestries: U (12) is typical of hunter‑gatherer matrilines, while K (10) and J (10) are commonly associated with Early Neolithic farmers of Anatolian origin. H (5) and X (4) appear at modest frequencies. Together, these mtDNA patterns indicate substantial mixing between incoming Neolithic farmer maternal lineages and autochthonous hunter‑gatherer mothers.

Genome‑wide signals (archaeogenetic context) align with archaeological expectations: Spain_MLN individuals generally carry a majority of Anatolian‑derived farmer ancestry admixed with local WHG ancestry. The balance of Y‑I with farmer‑associated mtDNA suggests complex sex‑biased admixture dynamics in which hunter‑gatherer paternal lines remained influential even as farming practices spread. Because some haplogroups in this sample are represented by fewer than 10 individuals, those specific frequencies should be treated as preliminary.

The genetic and archaeological signal of Spain_MLN contributes a deep layer to Iberian ancestry. Maternal lineages common in this group (K, J, U) persist into later populations and form part of the substrate seen in many modern Iberians. However, the later Bronze Age brought additional migrations and steppe‑related ancestry that reshaped Y‑chromosome landscapes, so the pattern seen here is one important chapter, not the whole story.

Archaeologically, Neolithic practices documented at the Spain_MLN sites — farming, herding, pottery traditions, and cave ritual — helped create enduring cultural templates in Iberia. Genetically informed archaeology underscores that these cultural shifts were produced by interaction and admixture rather than simple replacement. Ongoing aDNA sampling and newer analytical methods will refine the picture, especially for low‑frequency haplogroups in this dataset.